Run-time estimation
The most distinct limitation of the primary battery is its one-time use. Because of this, the cost of power is about 30 times higher than that of rechargeables. The pricing becomes even more excessive if the packs are replaced after each mission, regardless of length. A general of the US Army said that half of the batteries d]]>

,HP 446506-001 battery

Run-time estimation
The most distinct limitation of the primary battery is its one-time use. Because of this, the cost of power is about 30 times higher than that of rechargeables. The pricing becomes even more excessive if the packs are replaced after each mission, regardless of length. A general of the US Army said that half of the batteries discarded still have 50% energy left. Throwing away partially used batteries is widespread. Keeping track of these packs in the military and public sector is time-consuming and awkward. It is much simpler to issue fresh packs before each activity.

The switch to secondary batteries

During the last ten years, armies and emergency response teams have gradually been switching to rechargeable batteries. Improvements in battery technology, better charge methods and more readily available power sources made this possible. The most important single reason,IBM Thinkpad 390X battery, however,Dell Inspiron 8200 battery How To Extend Your Batt, is cost.

In the US Army,IBM Thinkpad 390X battery How to Take Care of Your,TOSHIBA PABAS076 battery, rechargeable batteries are being used predominately for training. Officials are now exploring their suitability for combat missions. Rechargeables have advantages that go beyond cost issues. For one, the batteries can be re-used and do not burden the supply channels. In the absence of electric power, charging can be done through solar power, windmills and hand-crank generators. Even kinetic power is being explored in which an electric generator is built in the sole of the soldier’s boot. Rechargeable batteries are able to providing power when no supply of fresh batteries is possible.

Another advantage of secondary batteries is low internal resistance. This allows high current on demand, an attribute that is essential for digital devices and instruments needing high inrush currents. Power tools,Dell Inspiron 600m battery Using Power Drills, for example,HP F4098A battery How To Find Cheap Battery For EV, could not be run effectively on alkaline batteries.
But rechargeable batteries have their limitations. Beside marginal energy density, secondary batteries have a defined shelf life and lose the ability to hold charge as they age. Similar to a spring under tension,FUJITSU Fpcbp151 battery Very Simple Way to Improve Battery Life – Android Forums, a secondary battery seeks to revert back to its lowest denominator.

Battery aging is subject to cycling,SONY NP-F970 battery 文章不存在java.io.FileNotFoun, storage temperature and state-of-charge. While a primary battery has a shelf life of 10 years, lithium-based batteries are good for 2-3 years in normal use. Cool storage at a 40% charge level prolongs longevity. Nickel-based batteries are good for 5 years and longer but require priming to regain performance after long storage.

Another negative of rechargeable batteries is the high self-discharge. nickel-based batteries exhibit a 10-20% self-discharge per month. This compares with 5-10% for lithium and lead-based batteries. The self-discharge increases at higher temperatures. For this reason,SONY NP-FM50 battery, secondary batteries are not an effective media for long-term energy storage; primary batteries are better suited. A secondary battery can never be removed too far from the charger. It needs to be fed before each activity.

Secondary batteries have a limited cycle count. The number of cycles achieved is based on the depth of discharge,Dell Latitude D500 battery How to use your iMac co, environmental conditions, charge methods and maintenance procedures. Each battery chemistry behaves differently in terms of aging and wear.

Secondary batteries need some level of battery maintenance. Only if periodically discharged do nickel-based batteries provide the cost-effective and reliable service expected in a fleet environment. The deep discharge reverses the crystalline formation (memory) that occurs if a nickel-based battery is repeatedly charged on top of a residual charge. lithium and lead-based batteries have no memory and an occasional discharge is applied to verify performance. Battery maintenance is best done with a battery analyzer.

Primary batteries have the highest energy density. Although the secondary (rechargeable) batteries have improved,Thinkpad x22 battery, a regular household alkaline provides 50% more power than lithium-ion,Dell INSPIRON 6400 battery, one of the highest energy-dense secondary batteries. The primary lithium battery used in cameras holds more than three times the energy of a lithium-ion battery of same size.

It is possible to read the state-of-charge of primary batteries. The most basic method is measuring the open terminal voltage but the result is inaccurate. The increase in internal resistance with lower state-of-charge adds to run-time estimations. A better method is counting the out-flowing energy units, also known as coulombs. This requires a circuit and a display unit on the battery. Due to high cost and inherent inaccuracies, especially during pulsed loading, this method is seldom used on primary batteries. A more accurate state-of-charge measurement is possible with a rapid-test instrument that examines the chemical integrity of the battery. The test is non-invasive and takes only a few seconds to complete.

Consumer market put aside, the largest users of primary (non-rechargeable) batteries are the military, specialty emergency services and forest fire fighters. High energy density, long storage and operational readiness are among their strong attributes. No charging and priming is required before use. Logistic is simple and battery power can be made available at remote locations that are unmanned and have no electrical power. Disposal is easy because most primary cells contain little toxic materials.

Capacity rating of alkaline cells
With moderate load, the energy density of alkaline batteries is very high. Figure 3 illustrates the rated capacities of the AAA, AA, C, D cells and the 9V pack. Note that these batteries only deliver the specified mAh if discharged through a high resistive load typical of portable entertainment devices.

The negative on the primary batteries is its relative high internal resistance, which inhibits current flow. High internal resistance has little affect when powering low-current devices such as a TV remote control or a kitchen clock. The problem arises with digital cameras and other power-hungry devices. A power drill on an alkaline would be unthinkable. The voltage would imply collapse.

Will secondary batteries replace primaries?

The comparison of the energy densities was done in an unfair way. Whereas most secondary batteries are rated at a 1C discharge, the alkaline was discharged at only 25mA to 0.8 volts. We now take the same batteries and run them under a load. The yellow bars in Figure 2 represent the usable energy if the batteries were used in such a device as a digital camera.

No. Some non-rechargeable batteries have a place in every home. For instance,HP Pavilion DV1000 battery, because rechargeable batteries lose their charge quicker than most non-rechargeables, they are not recommended for long-term use in appliances such as smoke detectors and battery operated c]]> ,Dell xps m1210 battery

No. Some non-rechargeable batteries have a place in every home. For instance,HP Pavilion DV1000 battery, because rechargeable batteries lose their charge quicker than most non-rechargeables, they are not recommended for long-term use in appliances such as smoke detectors and battery operated clocks or high-drain devices such as digital cameras.

Used to be the easiest way to replace a dead battery was to pull out the dead one, bring it to the store and buy its clone,FUJITSU Fpcbp121 battery, but these days,TOSHIBA PA3399U-2BAS battery Laptop Care and Maint,Dell Inspiron 500m battery, the easiest way isn’t always the best. To begin, most new appliances are sold “batteries not included” and, with some exceptions, even when batteries are included, they’re low-grade, non-rechargeable varieties.

You’ll pay less at checkout for most brands and sizes of non-rechargeable batteries, making non-rechargeables look like the better buy. However, rechargeable batteries generally provide you with hundreds and even thousands more hours of use and in the ‘long-run’ cost less than primary batteries.

Recharge or re-purchase?

Before buying batteries for a new appliance,Dell Latitude D630 battery How to Buy Laptop Compu, it’s usually best to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. Yet, while it’s easy to figure out what size battery to buy,HP Pavilion DV1000 battery 2, how do you choose the right type of battery for an old appliance?

Non-rechargeables are cheaper but rechargeable batteries are more cost efficient!

Non-rechargeable batteries are called primary batteries,IBM thinkpad t41p battery Prolong your cell phone, not because they’re first in quality but because they were invented first. Rechargeable batteries,HP Pavilion DV2000 battery How will the recall sha, classified as secondary batteries, are a must-have for many of today’s modern appliances and tools.

So, are non-rechargeable batteries obsolete?

Another fact to take note of, when replacing rechargeable batteries is that most batteries need battery chargers uniquely built for their type.

Rechargeable vs. Non-Rechargeable (Disposable) Batteries

Non-rechargeable batteries have a longer ‘shelf life’ but rechargeables last longer!

When you buy rechargeable batteries, as your batteries recharge,Dell Latitude D520 battery, the chemical reaction is reversed. Keeping a set of extra batteries in your battery recharger ensures that you’ll always have a fresh power supply ready when you need it.

When comparing rechargeable batteries to non-rechargeables, the facts alone can be confusing,Dell HD438 battery Battery Chargers and Charging M!

The best way is to compare battery types for either new purchase or replacement is by using a handy chart like our Battery Comparison Chart.

It’s true. The old stand-by, non-rechargeable battery, has a longer shelf life than its rechargeable counterpart. However, when you buy a pack,Dell U4873 battery How to Care for your laptop Eas, keep the extras in your freezer. Keeping primary batteries cold slows down the chemical reaction that makes them go dead, and when a primary battery goes dead — it’s dead and gone,Dell D5318 battery!

Because of the above risks, shipping and carriage of lithium batteries is restricted in some situations, particularly transport of lithium batteries by air.

UK regulations for the transport of lithium batteries were amended[11] by the National Chemical Emergency Centre in 2009.

Unused lithium batteries provide a convenient source of lithium metal for use as a reducing agent in me]]> Addition of copper(II) oxide to the cathode material results in the Li-CSVO variant.

Because of the above risks, shipping and carriage of lithium batteries is restricted in some situations, particularly transport of lithium batteries by air.

UK regulations for the transport of lithium batteries were amended[11] by the National Chemical Emergency Centre in 2009.

Unused lithium batteries provide a convenient source of lithium metal for use as a reducing agent in methamphetamine labs. Some jurisdictions have passed laws to restrict lithium battery sales or asked businesses to make voluntary restrictions in an attempt to help curb the creation of illegal meth labs. In 2004 Wal-Mart stores were reported to limit the sale of disposable lithium batteries to three packages in Missouri and four packages in other states.[10] High demand for lithium batteries for use in power-hungry devices such as digital cameras conflicts with such restrictions in stores, but internet retailers are an alternate source.[citation needed]

[edit] Applications

Lithium batteries can provide extremely high currents and can discharge very rapidly when short-circuited. Although this is useful in applications where high currents are required, a too-rapid discharge of a lithium battery can result in overheating of the battery, rupture, and even explosion. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are particularly susceptible to this type of discharge. Consumer batteries usually incorporate overcurrent or thermal protection or vents in order to prevent explosion.

Lithium batteries are disposable (primary) batteries that have lithium metal or lithium compounds as an anode. Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages from 1.5 V to about 3.7 V,HP Pavilion DV9000 battery, over twice the voltage of an ordinary zinc–carbon battery or alkaline battery.[1] Lithium batteries are widely used in products such as portable consumer electronic devices.

[edit] Transportation

The term “lithium battery” refers to a family of different chemistries, comprising many types of cathodes and electrolytes.

Button cell batteries are attractive to small children and often ingested. In very small children, they are a choking hazard. Lithium coin batteries lodged in the esophagus should be removed immediately. Leakage, chemical burns and potential perforation can occur within hours of ingestion.

Some other lithium batteries use a platinum-iridium alloy instead of more usual compounds. These batteries are generally not preferred, as their cost is high and they tend to be fragile.

Another type of lithium cell having a large energy density is the lithium-thionyl chloride cell. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are generally not sold to the consumer market, and find more use in commercial/industrial applications, or are installed into devices where no consumer replacement is performed. In this cell, a liquid mixture of thionyl chloride (SOCl2) and lithium tetrachloroaluminate (LiAlCl4) acts as the electrolyte and cathode respectively. A porous carbon material serves as a cathode current collector which receives electrons from the external circuit. Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries are well suited to extremely low-current applications where long life is necessary, e.g. wireless alarm systems.

The most common type of lithium cell used in consumer applications uses metallic lithium as anode and manganese dioxide as cathode, with a salt of lithium dissolved in an organic solvent.

Addition of bromine monochloride can boost the voltage to 3.9 V and increase energy density.[5]

[edit] Air travel

[edit] Rapid-discharge issues

Li-CuO
Copper(II) oxide
Lithium Perchlorate dissolved in Dioxolane
1.5 V
2.4 V Can operate up to 150 °C. Developed as a replacement of zinc-carbon and alkaline batteries. “Voltage up” problem, high difference between open-circuit and nominal voltage. Produced until mid-1990s, replaced by lithium-iron sulfide. Current use limited. Li-Cu4O(PO4)2
Copper oxyphosphate See Li-CuO Li-CuS
Copper sulfide 1.5 V Li-PbCuS
Lead sulfide and copper sulfide 1.5 V
2.2 V Li-FeS
Iron sulfide
Propylene carbonate, dioxolane, dimethoxyethane
1.5-1.2 V “Lithium-iron”, “Li/Fe”. used as a replacement for alkaline batteries. See lithium — iron disulfide. Li-FeS2
Iron disulfide
Propylene carbonate, dioxolane, dimethoxyethane
1.6-1.4 V
1.8 V
297 “Lithium-iron”,Compaq Business Notebook NX9000 series battery, “Li/Fe”. Used in Energizer lithium cells as a replacement for alkaline zinc-manganese chemistry. Called “voltage-compatible” lithiums. 2.5 times higher lifetime for high current discharge regime than alkaline batteries,IBM 08K8195 battery Buy Cheap TVs LCD TV Plasma TV, better storage life in e.g. cars in summer due to lower self-discharge, 10 years storage time. FeS2 is cheap. Some types rechargeable. Cathode often designed as a paste of iron sulfide powder mixed with powdered graphite. Variant is Li-CuFeS2. Li-Bi2Pb2O5
Lead bismuthate 1.5 V
1.8 V Replacement of silver-oxide batteries, with higher energy density, lower tendency to leak, and better performance at higher temperatures. Li-Bi2O3
Bismuth trioxide 1.5 V
2.04 V Li-V2O5
Vanadium pentoxide 3.3/2.4 V
3.4 V
120/260
300/660 Two discharge plateaus. Low-pressure. Rechargeable. Used in reserve batteries. Li-CoO2
Cobalt dioxide Li-CuCl2
Copper chloride Rechargeable. Li/Al-MnO2
Manganese dioxide Rechargeable. Li/Al-V2O5
Vanadium pentoxide Rechargeable. Li-ion
carbon
liquid Rechargeable. See lithium ion battery. Li-poly
polymer
solid Rechargeable. See lithium ion polymer battery.

Li-(CF)x (“BR”)
Carbon monofluoride
Lithium tetrafluoroborate in propylene carbonate, dimethoxyethane, and/or gamma-butyrolactone
2.8 V
3.1 V
360
680 Cathode material formed by high-temperature intercalation of fluorine gas into graphite powder. High energy density (250 Wh/kg), 7 year shelf life. Used for low to moderate current applications, eg. memory and clock backup batteries. Very good safety record. Used in aerospace applications, qualified for space since 1976. Used in military applications both terrestrial and marine,IBM THINKPAD T42 battery, and in missiles. Also used in cardiac pacemakers.[6] Maximum temperature 85 °C. Very low self-discharge (<0.5%/year at 60 °C, <1%/yr at 85 °C). Developed in 1970s by Matsushita.[7] Li-I2
Iodine
solid organic charge transfer complex (eg. poly-2-vinylpyridine, P2VP)
2.8 V
3.1 V Solid electrolyte. Very high reliability. Used in medical applications. Does not generate gas even under short circuit. Solid-state chemistry, limited short-circuit current, suitable only for low-current applications. Terminal voltage decreases with degree of discharge due to precipitation of lithium iodide. Low self-discharge. Li-Ag2CrO4
Silver chromate
Lithium perchlorate solution
3.1/2.6 V
3.45 V Very high reliability. Has a 2.6 V plateau after reaching certain percentage of discharge, provides early warning of impending discharge. Developed specifically for medical applications, eg. implanted pacemakers. Li-Ag2V4O11, Li-SVO, Li-CSVO
Silver oxide+vanadium pentoxide (SVO)
lithium hexafluorophosphate or lithium hexafluoroarsenate in propylene carbonate with dimethoxyethane Used in medical applications, eg. implantable defibrillators, neurostimulators, and drug infusion systems. Also projected for use in other electronics,Dell latitude cpi battery 4, eg. emergency locator transmitters. High energy density. Long shelf life. Capable of continuous operation at nominal temperature of 37 °C.[8] Two-stage discharge with a plateau. Output voltage decreasing proportionally to the degree of discharge. Resistant to abuse.

The United States Transportation Security Administration announced restrictions effective January 1,IBM 02K7054 battery, 2008 on lithium batteries in checked and carry-on luggage. The rules forbid lithium batteries not installed in a device from checked luggage and restrict them in carry-on luggage by total lithium content.[9]

Australia Post prohibited transport of lithium batteries in air mail during 2010.

[edit] Ingestion and choking hazard

On 2009 fall, at least some postal administrations restricted airmail shipping (including EMS) of lithium batteries, lithium-ion batteries and products containing these (e.g. laptops, cell phones etc). Among these countries are Hong Kong,[12] USA[13] and Japan.[14]

1 Description
2 Chemistries
3 Applications
4 Safety issues and regulation 4.1 Ingestion and choking hazard
4.2 Rapid-discharge issues 4.2.1 Air travel 4.3 Lithium batteries and methamphetamine labs
4.4 Transportation 5 See also
6 References
7 External links [edit] Description

Lithium batteries find application in many long-life, critical devices, such as artificial pacemakers and other implantable electronic medical devices. These devices use specialized lithium-iodide batteries designed to last 15 or more years. But for other, less critical applications such as in toys, the lithium battery may actually outlast the device. In such cases, an expensive lithium battery may not be cost-effective.

[edit] Safety issues and regulation

Common back up circuit diagram

Small lithium batteries are very commonly used in small, portable electronic devices, such as PDAs, watches, camcorders, digital cameras,Dell INSPIRON 9400 battery, thermometers, calculators, laptop BIOS,Dell Inspiron 8200 battery 3, communication equipment and remote car locks. They are available in many shapes and sizes, with a common variety being the 3 volt “coin” type manganese variety, typically 20 mm in diameter and 1.6–4 mm thick. The heavy electrical demands of many of these devices make lithium batteries a particularly attractive option. In particular, lithium batteries can easily support the brief, heavy current demands of devices such as digital cameras, and they maintain a higher voltage for a longer period than alkaline cells.

The liquid organic electrolyte is usually a solution of an ion-forming inorganic lithium compound in a mixture of a high-permittivity solvent (eg. propylene carbonate) and a low-viscosity solvent (eg. dimethoxyethane).

[edit] External links The 2009 amendments to the regulations regarding transport of Lithium Batteries
Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery information
Properties of non-rechargeable lithium batteries
Brand Neutral Drawings of Lithium Batteries based on ANSI Specifications
Lithium Thionyl Chloride Battery MSDS and supporting safety information v · d · eGalvanic cells Non-rechargeable:
primary cells Rechargeable:
secondary cells Kinds of cells Parts of cells

The computer industry’s drive to increase battery capacity can test the limits of sensitive components such as the membrane separator, a polyethylene or polypropylene film that is only 20-25 µm thick. The energy density of lithium batteries has more than doubled since they were introduced in 1991. When the battery is made to contain more material,ACER aspire 5560 battery How to Care for a Laptop, the separator can undergo stress.

[edit] Lithium batteries and methamphetamine labs

Lithium batteries can be used in place of ordinary alkaline cells in many devices, such as clocks and cameras. Although they are more costly, lithium cells will provide much longer life, thereby minimizing battery replacement. However, attention must be given to the higher voltage developed by the lithium cells before using them as a drop-in replacement in devices that normally use ordinary zinc cells.

[edit] Chemistries Chemistry
Cathode
Electrolyte
Nominal voltage
Open-circuit voltage
Wh/kg
Wh/dm3 Li-MnO2 (Li-Mn, “CR”)
Heat-treated manganese dioxide
Lithium perchlorate in propylene carbonate and dimethoxyethane
3 V
3.3 V
280
580 The most common consumer grade battery, about 80% of the lithium battery market. Uses inexpensive materials. Suitable for low-drain, long-life, low-cost applications. High energy density per both mass and volume. Can deliver high pulse currents. Wide temperature range. With discharge the internal impedance rises and the terminal voltage decreases. Maximum temperature limited to about 60 °C. High self-discharge at high temperatures. Li-SOCl2
Thionyl chloride
Lithium tetrachloroaluminate in thionyl chloride
3.5 V
3.65 V
290
670 Liquid cathode. For low temperature applications. Can operate down to -55 °C, where it retains over 50% of its rated capacity. Negligible amount of gas generated in nominal use, limited amount under abuse. Has relatively high internal impedance and limited short-circuit current. High energy density,FUJITSU Fpcbp98 battery sony vgp-bpl9 battery – Sa, about 500 Wh/kg. Toxic. Electrolyte reacts with water. Low-current cells used for portable electronics and memory backup. High-current cells used in military applications. In long storage forms passivation layer on anode, which may lead to temporary voltage delay when put into service. High cost and safety concerns limit use in civilian applications. Can explode when shorted. Underwriters Laboratories require trained technician for replacement of these batteries. Hazardous waste,dell Inspiron 1501 battery BatteryCare, Class 9 Hazmat shipment.[2] Li-SOCl2,BrCl, Li-BCX
Thionyl chloride with bromine chloride
Lithium tetrachloroaluminate in thionyl chloride
3.7-3.8 V
3.9 V
350
770 Liquid cathode. A variant of the thionyl chloride battery, with 300 mV higher voltage. The higher voltage drops back to 3.5 V soon as the bromine chloride gets consumed during the first 10-20% of discharge. The cells with added bromine chloride are thought to be safer when abused. Li-SO2Cl2
Sulfuryl chloride 3.7
3.95
330
720 Liquid cathode. Similar to thionyl chloride. Discharge does not result in buildup of elemental sulfur, which is thought to be involved in some hazardous reactions, therefore sulfuryl chloride batteries may be safer. Commercial deployment hindered by tendency of the electrolyte to corrode the lithium anodes, reducing the shelf life. Chlorine is added to some cells to make them more resistant to abuse. Sulfuryl chloride cells give less maximum current than thionyl chloride ones, due to polarization of the carbon cathode. Sulfuryl chloride reacts violently with water, releasing hydrogen chloride and sulfuric acid.[3] Li-SO2
Sulfur dioxide on teflon-bonded carbon
Lithium bromide in sulfur dioxide with small amount of acetonitrile
2.85 V
3.0 V
250
400 Liquid cathode. Can operate down to -55 °C and up to +70 °C. Contains liquid SO2 at high pressure. Requires safety vent,Dell HD438 battery How To Make a Solar Cell with D, can explode in some conditions. High energy density. High cost. At low temperatures and high currents performs better than Li-MnO2. Toxic. Acetonitrile forms lithium cyanide, and can form hydrogen cyanide in high temperatures.[4] Used in military applications.

[edit] See also Battery recycling
Battery holder
Button cell
Lithium-ion battery
Lithium air battery
Lithium-ion polymer battery
Lithium iron phosphate [edit] References ^ “Lithium Battery Production”. Protomatic.com. Retrieved 2011-01-19. 
^ Pilarzyk, Jim. “White Paper – Lithium Carbon Monofluoride Coin Cells in Real-Time Clock and Memory Backup Applications”. rayovac.com. Rayovac Corporation. Archived from the original on 2007-12-12.
^ “Lithium sulfuryl chloride battery”. Corrosion-doctors.org. Retrieved 2011-01-19. 
^ McGraw, Jack (March 7, 1984). “Letter to Dick Bruner, U.S. Defense Logistics Agency”. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
^ “Lithium Batteries Specifications”. Lithium-batteries.globalspec.com. Retrieved 2011-01-19. 
^ Greatbatch W, Holmes CF, Takeuchi ES, Ebel SJ (November 1996). “Lithium/carbon monofluoride (Li/CFx): a new pacemaker battery”. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 19 (11 Pt 2): 1836–40. PMID 8945052. 
^ “Lithium Poly Carbon Monoflouride”. House Of Batteries.
^ Gonzalez,Toshiba Satellite P30 battery, Lina (Summer 2005). “Solid State NMR Investigation of Silver Vanadium Oxide (SVO)”. CUNY, Hunter College.
^ “Traveling Safe with Batteries”. U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 2007-12-29. 
^ Parker, Molly (January 26, 2004). “Meth fear cuts cold-pill access ; Pseudoephedrine used in illegal drug”. Chicago Tribune. p. 1. (registration required)
^ “Final Report – Lithium Batteries” (PDF). the-ncec.com.
^ “Postage Guide – section 6.3″ (PDF). Hong Kong Post.
^ Mark Ross (November 26, 2008). “Aviation Mail Security & Hazardous Materials”. United States Postal Service. Retrieved 2011-01-19. 
^ “I want to send a laptop to overseas. How can I do that ? – Japan Post”. Post.japanpost.jp. Retrieved 2011-01-19. 

This article is about disposable primary batteries. Rechargeable batteries are discussed in Lithium-ion battery

The Battery Directive of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to requiring increased recycling of batteries, and promoting research on improved battery recycling methods.[77]

An]]> Common types of disposable batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline batteries. Generally, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries,[36] but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω).[31]

The Battery Directive of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to requiring increased recycling of batteries, and promoting research on improved battery recycling methods.[77]

An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.[1] Since the invention of the first battery (or “voltaic pile”) in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year,[2] with 6% annual growth.[3]

Reserve

Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. Later, starting with the Daniell cell in 1836, batteries provided more reliable currents and were adopted by industry for use in stationary devices, particularly in telegraph networks where they were the only practical source of electricity, since electrical distribution networks did not exist at the time.[19] These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.[20]

A common dry cell battery is the zinc-carbon battery, using a cell sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same nominal voltage as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc-manganese dioxide combination).

Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta.[12] Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.[24]

Wet cell

Gel batteries (or “gel cell”) contain a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage.
Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell since the liquid covers all internal parts, or vented cell since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. It is often built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as open-topped glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell,HP Pavilion DV2000 battery How will the recall sha, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These applications commonly use lead-acid or nickel-cadmium cells.

Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means.[32]
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.[33]

“Deep-cycle” lead-acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much thicker plates to aid their longevity.[64] The main benefit of the lead-acid battery is its low cost; the main drawbacks are its large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage.[62] Lead-acid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their full capacity,[65] because internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle lead-acid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the battery’s life.[66]

Ingestion

Battery cell performance

Rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged NiCd loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month.[56] However, modern lithium designs have reduced the self-discharge rate to a relatively low level (but still poorer than for primary batteries).[56] Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use.[57]

Daniell cells are also easy to make at home. Aluminum-air batteries can also be produced with high purity aluminum. Aluminum foil batteries will produce some electricity, but they are not very efficient, in part because a significant amount of hydrogen gas is produced.

When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the walls of the battery, leading to pressure build-up and the possibility of the battery case bursting. In extreme cases, the battery acid may spray violently from the casing of the battery and cause injury. Overcharging—that is, attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity—can also lead to a battery explosion, leakage, or irreversible damage to the battery. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used. Additionally, disposing of a battery in fire may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case of the battery.[70]

A common form of the lead-acid battery is the modern car battery, which can generally deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.[38] An improved type of liquid electrolyte battery is the sealed valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) battery, popular in the automotive industry as a replacement for the lead-acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life.[39] VRLA batteries have the electrolyte immobilized, usually by one of two means:

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy.[22] It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e.,HP Pavilion DV1000 battery, the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode.[23] The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

Battery sizes Lifespan of rechargeable batteries

The battery capacity that battery manufacturers print on a battery is usually the product of 20 hours multiplied by the maximum constant current that a new battery can supply for 20 hours at 68 F° (20 C°), down to a predetermined terminal voltage per cell. A battery rated at 100 A·h will deliver 5 A over a 20 hour period at room temperature. However, if it is instead discharged at 50 A, it will have a lower apparent capacity.[48]

The makeup of a standard dry cell is a zinc anode (negative pole), usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode (positive pole) in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some more modern types of so called ‘high power’ batteries, the ammonium chloride has been replaced by zinc chloride.

Line art drawing of a dry cell:
1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7. chemical mixture.

A battery explosion is caused by the misuse or malfunction of a battery, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery,APPLE A1078 battery,[69] or short circuiting a battery.[70] With car batteries, explosions are most likely to occur when a short circuit generates very large currents. In addition, car batteries liberate hydrogen when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). Normally the amount of overcharging is very small, as is the amount of explosive gas developed, and the gas dissipates quickly. However, when “jumping” a car battery, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited by a nearby spark (for example, when removing the jumper cables).

Battery capacity and discharging

Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current (which may vary with time), the allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature and other factors.[46] The available capacity of a battery depends upon the rate at which it is discharged.[47] If a battery is discharged at a relatively high rate, the available capacity will be lower than expected.

Chemistry
Nominal Cell
Voltage
Specific Energy [MJ/kg]
Elaboration Zinc–carbon
1.5
0.13
Inexpensive. Zinc–chloride
1.5 Also known as “heavy duty”, inexpensive. Alkaline
(zinc–manganese dioxide)
1.5
0.4-0.59
Moderate energy density.
Good for high and low drain uses. Oxy nickel hydroxide
(zinc–manganese dioxide/oxy nickel hydroxide)
1.7 Moderate energy density.
Good for high drain uses Lithium
(lithium–copper oxide)
Li–CuO
1.7 No longer manufactured.
Replaced by silver oxide (IEC-type “SR”) batteries. Lithium
(lithium–iron disulfide)
LiFeS2
1.5 Expensive.
Used in ‘plus’ or ‘extra’ batteries. Lithium
(lithium–manganese dioxide)
LiMnO2
3.0
0.83-1.01
Expensive.
Only used in high-drain devices or for long shelf life due to very low rate of self discharge.
‘Lithium’ alone usually refers to this type of chemistry. Mercury oxide
1.35 High drain and constant voltage.
Banned in most countries because of health concerns. Zinc–air
1.35–1.65
1.59[80]
Mostly used in hearing aids. Silver-oxide (silver–zinc)
1.55
0.47
Very expensive.
Only used commercially in ‘button’ cells. Rechargeable battery chemistries

A molten salt battery is a primary or secondary battery that uses a molten salt as its electrolyte. Their energy density and power density makes them potentially useful for electric vehicles, but they must be carefully insulated to retain heat.

The usage of “battery” to describe electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars (early electrical capacitors) by analogy to a battery of cannons.[5] Thus Franklin’s usage to describe multiple Leyden jars predated Volta’s use of multiple galvanic cells.[6] It is speculated, but not established, that several ancient artifacts consisting of copper sheets and iron bars, and known as Baghdad batteries may have been galvanic cells.[7]

There are many general types of electrochemical cells, according to chemical processes applied and design chosen. The variation includes galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.[45]

The widespread use of batteries has created many environmental concerns, such as toxic metal pollution.[71] Battery manufacture consumes resources and often involves hazardous chemicals. Used batteries also contribute to electronic waste. Some areas now have battery recycling services available to recover some of the materials from used batteries.[72] Batteries may be harmful or fatal if swallowed.[73] Recycling or proper disposal prevents dangerous elements (such as lead, mercury, and cadmium) found in some types of batteries from entering the environment. In the United States, Americans purchase nearly three billion batteries annually, and about 179,000 tons of those end up in landfills across the country.[74]

Volta’s work was stimulated by the Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi Galvani, who in 1780 noticed that dissected frog’s legs would twitch when struck by a spark from a Leyden jar,Dell Inspiron 1720 battery 1, an external source of electricity.[8] In 1786 he noticed that twitching would occur during lightning storms.[9] After many years Galvani learned how to produce twitching without using any external source of electricity. In 1791 he published a report on “animal electricity.”[10] He created an electric circuit consisting of the frog’s leg (FL) and two different metals A and B, each metal touching the frog’s leg and each other, thus producing the circuit A-FL-B-A-FL-B…etc. In modern terms, the frog’s leg served as both the electrolyte and the sensor, and the metals served as electrodes. He noticed that even though the frog was dead, its legs would twitch when he touched them with the metals.

This type of solution eliminates the quantity of external components, as for discrete capacitors,PA3062U-1BAT battery 4, diodes and most other resistors to achieve balance.

Volta did not appreciate that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,[15] and that the associated chemical effects at the electrodes (e.g. corrosion) were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.[16] According to Faraday, cations (positively charged ions) are attracted to the cathode,[17] and anions (negatively charged ions) are attracted to the anode.[18]

Battery chemistry
Primary battery chemistries

Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries are the fastest charging and discharging, next to supercapacitors.[49] The world’s largest battery is in Fairbanks, Alaska, composed of Ni-Cd cells.[50] Sodium-sulfur batteries are being used to store wind power.[51] Lithium-sulfur batteries have been used on the longest and highest solar powered flight.[52] The speed of recharging for lithium-ion batteries may be increased by manipulation.[53]

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery.[37] This battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where a large capacity (over approximately 10Ah) is required or where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.

Historically, some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical reaction.[34] Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

(includes data from energy density article)

Primary batteries

A dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a paste, with only enough moisture in the paste to allow current to flow. As opposed to a wet cell, the battery can be operated in any random position, and will not spill its electrolyte if inverted.

Environmental concerns

For low values of I internal self-discharge must be included.

Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or “primary”) batteries can lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge every year at a temperature of about 20°–30°C.[54] This is known as the “self discharge” rate and is due to non-current-producing “side” chemical reactions, which occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it. The rate of the side reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at low temperature, although some batteries can be damaged by freezing. High or low temperatures may reduce battery performance. This will affect the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline battery this initial voltage is approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts.

Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and disadvantages.[31]

Cell balancing principle

Dry cell

Extending battery life

Within a year, Volta realized the frog’s moist tissues could be replaced by cardboard soaked in salt water, and the frog’s muscular response could be replaced by another form of electrical detection. He already had studied the electrostatic phenomenon of capacitance, which required measurements of electric charge and of electrical potential (“tension”). Building on this experience, Volta was able to detect electric current through his system, also called a Galvanic cell. The terminal voltage of a cell that is not discharging is called its electromotive force (emf), and has the same unit as electrical potential, named (voltage) and measured in volts, in honor of Volta. In 1800, Volta invented the battery by placing many voltaic cells in series, literally piling them one above the other. This voltaic pile gave a greatly enhanced net emf for the combination,[11] with a voltage of about 50 volts for a 32-cell pile.[12] In many parts of Europe batteries continue to be called piles.[13][14]

(includes data from the energy density article)

Analog front ends that balance cells and eliminate mismatches of cells in series or parallel combination significantly improve battery efficiency and increase the overall pack capacity. As the number of cells and load currents increase, the potential for mismatch also increases. There are two kinds of mismatch in the pack: state-of-charge (SOC) and capacity/energy (C/E) mismatch. Though the SOC mismatch is more common, each problem limits the pack capacity (mAh) to the capacity of the weakest cell.

The relationship between current, discharge time, and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a certain range of current values) by Peukert’s law:

Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous, or both. If leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous.

While a dry cell’s electrolyte is not truly completely free of moisture and must contain some moisture to function, it has the advantage of containing no sloshing liquid that might leak or drip out when inverted or handled roughly, making it highly suitable for small portable electric devices. By comparison,HP pavilion zx6000 battery How to Find Canon Lp E5, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top, and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. An inverted wet cell would leak, while a dry cell would not. Lead-acid batteries would not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.

There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries),Pa3331u-1brs battery, which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

Categories and types of batteries

Recent developments include batteries with embedded functionality such as USBCELL, with a built-in charger and USB connector within the AA format, enabling the battery to be charged by plugging into a USB port without a charger,[41] and low self-discharge (LSD) mix chemistries such as Hybrio,[42] ReCyko,[43] and Eneloop,[44] where cells are precharged prior to shipping.

Strictly, a battery is a collection of multiple electrochemical cells (or cells, for short), but in popular usage battery often refers to a single cell.[1] For example, a 1.5 volt AAA battery is really only a single 1.5 volt cell, whereas a 9 volt battery is really six 1.5 volt cells in series. The first electrochemical cell was developed by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1792, and in 1800 he invented the first battery—for him,IBM thinkpad t41p battery Digital Focus Caring fo, a “pile” of many cells in series.[4]

Battery pack cells are balanced when all the cells in the battery pack meet two conditions:

A battery’s characteristics may vary over load cycle, charge cycle and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain and temperature.

Fastest charging, largest, and lightest batteries

As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell’s terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.[29] On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[30]

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts.[25] The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance,[26] the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage.[27] An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of work.[25] In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge,[26] and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time,Toshiba PA3098U battery How To Choose A Laptop Gui, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.[28]

Secondary batteries

Installing batteries with different A·h ratings will not affect the operation of a device rated for a specific voltage unless the load limits of the battery are exceeded. High-drain loads like digital cameras can result in lower actual energy, most notably for alkaline batteries.[31] For example, a battery rated at 2000 mA·h would not sustain a current of 1 A for the full two hours, if it had been rated at a 10-hour or 20-hour discharge.

The more electrolyte and electrode material there is in the cell, the greater the capacity of the cell. Thus a small cell has less capacity than a larger cell, given the same chemistry (e.g. alkaline cells), though they develop the same open-circuit voltage.[46]

Battery lifetime
Life of primary batteries

If all cells have the same capacity, then they are balanced when they have the same State of Charge (SOC.) In this case, the Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) is a good measure of the SOC. If, in an out of balance pack, all cells can be differentially charged to full capacity (balanced), then they will subsequently cycle normally without any additional adjustments. This is mostly a one shot fix.
If the cells have different capacities, they are also considered balanced when the SOC is the same. But, since SOC is a relative measure, the absolute amount of capacity for each cell is different. To keep the cells with different capacities at the same SOC, cell balancing must provide differential amounts of current to cells in the series string during both charge and discharge on every cycle. Cell balancing electronics

Small button/disk batteries can be swallowed by young children. While in the digestive tract the battery’s electrical discharge can burn the tissues and can be serious enough to lead to death.[78] Disk batteries do not usually cause problems unless they become lodged in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The most common place disk batteries become lodged, resulting in clinical sequelae, is the esophagus. Batteries that successfully traverse the esophagus are unlikely to lodge at any other location. The likelihood that a disk battery will lodge in the esophagus is a function of the patient’s age and the size of the battery. Disk batteries of 16 mm have become lodged in the esophagi of 2 children younger than 1 year.[citation needed] Older children do not have problems with batteries smaller than 21–23 mm. Liquefaction necrosis may occur because sodium hydroxide is generated by the current produced by the battery (usually at the anode). Perforation has occurred as rapidly as 6 hours after ingestion.[79]

In the United States, the Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996 banned the sale of mercury-containing batteries, enacted uniform labeling requirements for rechargeable batteries, and required that rechargeable batteries be easily removable.[75] California,FUJITSU Fpcbp78 battery, and New York City prohibit the disposal of rechargeable batteries in solid waste, and along with Maine require recycling of cell phones.[76] The rechargeable battery industry has nationwide recycling programs in the United States and Canada, with dropoff points at local retailers.[76]

See also Battery electric vehicle
Battery (vacuum tube)
Battery Directive
Battery holder
Battery isolator
Battery Management System (BMS)
Battery nomenclature
Battery pack
Battery recycling
Battery terminals
Depth Of Discharge (DOD)
Electrochemical cell Energy density
Energy storage
Flexible battery
Galvanic cell
List of battery sizes
List of battery types
Magnetic battery
Nano titanate
Nanowire battery
Printed battery
Rechargeable battery
State Of Charge (SOC)
State Of Health (SOH)
Thermal runaway
Trickle charging References Further reading Dingrando, Laurel; et al. (2007). Chemistry: Matter and Change. New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-877237-5.  Ch. 21 (pp. 662–695) is on electrochemistry.
Fink, Donald G.; H. Wayne Beaty (1978). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07020974-X. 
Knight, Randall D. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach. San Francisco: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-8053-8960-1.  Chs. 28-31 (pp. 879–995) contain information on electric potential.
Linden, David; Thomas B. Reddy (2001). Handbook Of Batteries. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-0713-5978-8. 
Saslow, Wayne M. (2002). Electricity, Magnetism, and Light. Toronto: Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-12-619455-6.  Chs. 8-9 (pp. 336–418) have more information on batteries. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Battery Battery University
The Electropaedia on Battery Chemistries and How They Work
Non-rechargeable batteries
HowStuffWorks: How batteries work
Comprehensive knowledge base about battery technology, battery applications, chargers and ancillary equipment
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- “Batteries” v · d · eBattery sizes v · d · eGalvanic cells Non-rechargeable:
primary cells Rechargeable:
secondary cells Kinds of cells Parts of cells

Chemistry
Cell
Voltage
Specific Energy
[MJ/kg]
Comments NiCd
1.2
0.14
Inexpensive.
High/low drain,SONY VGP-BPS2 battery, moderate energy density.
Can withstand very high discharge rates with virtually no loss of capacity.
Moderate rate of self discharge.
Reputed to suffer from memory effect (which is alleged to cause early failure).
Environmental hazard due to Cadmium – use now virtually prohibited in Europe. Lead acid
2.1
0.14
Moderately expensive.
Moderate energy density.
Moderate rate of self discharge.
Higher discharge rates result in considerable loss of capacity.
Does not suffer from memory effect.
Environmental hazard due to Lead.
Common use – Automobile batteries NiMH
1.2
0.36
Inexpensive.
Performs better than alkaline batteries in higher drain devices.
Traditional chemistry has high energy density, but also a high rate of self-discharge.
Newer chemistry has low self-discharge rate, but also a ~25% lower energy density.
Very heavy. Used in some cars. NiZn
1.6
0.36
Moderately inexpensive.
High drain device suitable.
Low self-discharge rate.
Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than other secondary cells.
No toxic components.
Newly introduced to the market (2009). Has not yet established a track record.
Limited size availability. Lithium ion
3.6
0.46
Very expensive.
Very high energy density.
Not usually available in “common” battery sizes (but see RCR-V3 for a counter-example).
Very common in laptop computers, moderate to high-end digital cameras and camcorders, and cellphones.
Very low rate of self discharge.
Volatile: Chance of explosion if short circuited, allowed to overheat, or not manufactured with rigorous quality standards. Homemade cells

Battery cell types

QP is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.
I is the current drawn from battery (A).
t is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
k is a constant around 1.3.

For example, disposable batteries often use a zinc “can” as both a reactant and as the container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is run all the way down, or if it is recharged after running down too far, the reagents can emerge through the cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container. The active chemical leakage can then damage the equipment that the batteries were inserted into. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not be used for extended periods of time.

Principle of operation

Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.

Molten salt

Although rechargeable batteries have their energy content restored by charging, some deterioration occurs on each charge/discharge cycle. Low-capacity nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries (1700-2000 mA·h) can be charged for about 1000 cycles, whereas high capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500 mA·h) can be charged for about 500 cycles.[58] Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values. Normally a fast charge, rather than a slow overnight charge, will shorten battery lifespan.[58] However, if the overnight charger is not “smart” and cannot detect when the battery is fully charged, then overcharging is likely, which also damages the battery.[59] Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material falls off the electrodes. NiCd batteries suffer the drawback that they should be fully discharged before recharge. Without full discharge, crystals may build up on the electrodes, thus decreasing the active surface area and increasing internal resistance. This decreases battery capacity and causes the “memory effect”. These electrode crystals can also penetrate the electrolyte separator, thereby causing shorts. NiMH, although similar in chemistry, does not suffer from memory effect to quite this extent.[60] When a battery reaches the end of its lifetime, it will not suddenly lose all of its capacity; rather, its capacity will gradually decrease.[61]

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several “dry cell” types, which are sealed units and are therefore useful in appliances such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel-cadmium (NiCd), nickel-zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells.[40] By far, Li-ion has the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market.[3] Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.[3] NiZn is a new technology that is not yet well established commercially.

In practical batteries, internal energy losses,HP Pavilion DV2000 battery How to care for your di, and limited rate of diffusion of ions through the electrolyte, cause the efficiency of a battery to vary at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the battery’s energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates,[48] but if the rate is too low, it will self-discharge during the long time of operation, again lowering its efficiency.

Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes made of different metals into a lemon,[81] potato,[82] etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. “Two-potato clocks” are also widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, et cetera) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock.[83] Homemade cells of this kind are of no real practical use, because they produce far less current—and cost far more per unit of energy generated—than commercial cells, due to the need for frequent replacement of the fruit or vegetable. In addition, one can make a voltaic pile from two coins (such as a nickel and a penny) and a piece of paper towel dipped in salt water. Such a pile would make very little voltage itself, but when many of them are stacked together in series, they can replace normal batteries for a short amount of time.[84]

Discharging performance of all batteries drops at low temperature.[55]

Leakage

Hazards
Explosion

Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a refrigerator or freezer, which slows the chemical reactions in the battery. Such storage can extend the life of alkaline batteries by about 5%, while the charge of rechargeable batteries can be extended from a few days up to several months.[67] To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mAh at 0°C is only half as efficient as it is at 20°C.[36] As a result, alkaline battery manufacturers like Duracell do not recommend refrigerating or freezing batteries.[35]

Lead acid cells can easily be manufactured at home, but a tedious charge/discharge cycle is needed to ‘form’ the plates. This is a process whereby lead sulfate forms on the plates, and during charge is converted to lead dioxide (positive plate) and pure lead (negative plate). Repeating this process results in a microscopically rough surface, with far greater surface area being exposed. This increases the current the cell can deliver. For an example, see [3].

Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells.[35]

1 History
2 Principle of operation
3 Categories and types of batteries 3.1 Primary batteries
3.2 Secondary batteries
3.3 Battery cell types 3.3.1 Wet cell
3.3.2 Dry cell
3.3.3 Molten salt
3.3.4 Reserve 3.4 Battery cell performance 4 Battery capacity and discharging 4.1 Fastest charging, largest, and lightest batteries 5 Battery lifetime 5.1 Life of primary batteries 5.1.1 Battery sizes 5.2 Lifespan of rechargeable batteries
5.3 Extending battery life
5.4 Prolonging life in multiple cells through cell balancing 6 Hazards 6.1 Explosion
6.2 Leakage
6.3 Environmental concerns
6.4 Ingestion 7 Battery chemistry 7.1 Primary battery chemistries
7.2 Rechargeable battery chemistries 8 Homemade cells
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links History

where

Prolonging life in multiple cells through cell balancing

It is important to recognize that the cell mismatch results more from limitations in process control and inspection than from variations inherent in the Lithium Ion chemistry. The use of a fully integrated analog front end for cell balancing can improve the performance of series connected Li-ion Cells by addressing both SOC and C/E issues.[68] SOC mismatch can be remedied by balancing the cell during an initial conditioning period and subsequently only during the charge phase. C/E mismatch remedies are more difficult to implement and harder to measure and require balancing during both charge and discharge periods.

Automotive lead-acid rechargeable batteries have a much harder life.[62] Because of vibration, shock, heat, cold, and sulfation of their lead plates,Dell Inspiron 1520 battery, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use.[63] Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to provide as much current as possible in a reasonably small package. In general, the thicker the plates, the longer the life of the battery.[62] Typically they are only drained a small amount before recharge. Care should be taken to avoid deep discharging a starting battery, since each charge and discharge cycle causes active material to be shed from the plates.

Cell balancing is defined as the application of differential currents to individual cells (or combinations of cells) in a series string. Normally, of course, cells in a series string receive identical currents. A battery pack requires additional components and circuitry to achieve cell balancing. However, the use of a fully integrated analog front end for cell balancing reduces the required external components to just balancing resistors.

Since then, batteries have gained popularity as they became portable and useful for a variety of purposes.[21]

A reserve battery can be stored for a long period of time and is activated when its internal parts (usually electrolyte) are assembled. For example, a battery for an electronic fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun, breaking a capsule of electrolyte to activate the battery and power the fuze’s circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on immersion in water.

Sony has developed a biological battery that generates electricity from sugar in a way that is similar to the processes observed in living organisms. The battery generates electricity through the use of enzymes that break down carbohydrates, which are essentially sugar.[85] A similarly designed sugar drink powers a phone using enzymes to generate electricity from carbohydrates that covers the phone’s electrical needs. It only needs a pack of sugary drink and it generates water and oxygen while the battery dies out.[86]

Volkow says it is too early to tell whether this is good or bad for the brain. “Much larger fluctuations in brain activity occur naturally,]]> The PET scans tracked that radioactive glucose to monitor the brain’s metabolism. They found no appreciable difference across the whole brain between people undergoing long cell conversations and those not talking on the phone. But they found a 7 percent increase in energy use in the brain regions right next to an active phone.

Volkow says it is too early to tell whether this is good or bad for the brain. “Much larger fluctuations in brain activity occur naturally,TOSHIBA PA3399U-2BAS battery How to Take Care of Y,” says Patrick Haggard at University College London. In fact, being able to increase activity might boost the brain’s connectivity,Dell INSPIRON 2500 battery, and could even be useful therapeutically,Dell INSPIRON e1505 battery 2, Volkow suggests. [New Scientist]

Brain imaging physicist Dardo Tomasi of Brookhaven National Laboratory, who co-authored the study,Dell Inspiron 510m battery How to Buy a 24v Batter,Acer aspire 3613wlmi battery, said that’s several times less activity than visual brain regions show during an engaging movie. “The effect is very small,Dell inspiron b120 battery 4, but it’s still unnatural. Nature didn’t prepare our brains for this,FUJITSU Fpcbp77 battery New Flexible Plastic Solar,” Tomasi said. [Wired]

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To blind the participants, the authors strapped two cell phones on their heads, one to each ear (the cellphone used in this work is a standard Samsung CDMA flip phone). Both were kept muted, and only one was activated by a call—the side that was activated was flipped in two different recording sessions. The calls started 20 minutes before a dose of radioactive glucose, and kept going for a half an hour afterwards to provide a long-term picture of metabolic activity. The data from one of the subjects ended up not being used because the cell company dropped the call. [Ars Technica]

When you engage in a long cell phone conversation,Toshiba PA2487UR battery Is lithium-ion the ideal,JVC BN-VF707U battery, a new study says,Dell Inspiron 8200 battery How To Extend Your Batt, the phone radiation may increase the brain activity in regions nearest to the antenna. It’s the newest entry into the long-running debate about whether cell phones carry health risks,APPLE A1078 battery, but the scientists behind the research in the Journal of the American Medical Association caution that they don’t know what this localized change in brain activity means—or even how it’s happening.

Still, Volkow and Tomasi aren’t sure what exactly their study is showing. The heightened activity would suggest neurons are firing a little faster in these regions, but they don’t know the mechanism by which cell radiation could engineer this boost. In addition, while the study’s result sounds scary, there is not yet even evidence that the localized brain effect is bad news.

Many previous studies of cell phone safety have looked into the question of whether the phones’ radiation could cause cancer (there’s no solid evidence that it could) or looked at the effects of the heat that phones create. But Nora Volkow and colleagues investigated something else: The metabolism of the brain regions nearest to the phone—that is,PA3107U-1BAS battery, how quickly they are burning energy. To do it, Volkow’s team recruited 50 people and subjected them to PET scans while an active cellphone sat next to their heads.

The followi]]> Lithium Ion(Li-on) is the newest portable power technology. Li-on is developed to deliver roughly twice the run time of a comparable NiMH battery. Li-on batteries are more expensive, and are available for a very limited number of devices. They must also be charged by a charger designed specifically for Li-on batteries. Li-on technology has a life span same as that of NiMH batteries i.e about 400 charge / discharge cycles and is completely immune to memory effect.

The following tips should help a user increase life of mobile phone batteries and make them last longer for their designated work time.

1) Turn off the mobile phone,SONY PCGA-BP1N battery, it is possibly the most effective and most simple way of conserving battery power. Turn the cell phone off if you do not plan on answering the phone while sleeping or after business hours.

2) Stop searching for a signal,Satellite pro m30 battery, in an area with poor or no signal, the mobile phone will constantly look for a better connection, and will use up all the power in doing so.

3) Switch off the vibrate function on your phone, and use just the ring tone instead. The vibrate function uses up a lot of battery power. Keep the ring tone volume as low as possible.

4) Turn off phones back light. The back light is something which makes the phone easier to read in bright light or outside. However, the light also uses battery power. If one can get by without it,CANON NB-2LH battery, the battery will last longer.

5) Avoid using unnecessary features like flash photography, unnecessary applications running in the background using memory,Compaq Presario r3000 battery 2, processing power as well as batter.

6) Keep calls short. If one needs to conserve the battery power then they should limit their talk time.

7) Turn off Bluetooth. It drains cell phones battery very quickly.

Turn off Wifi,Dell Latitude D800 battery, GPS, and infrared capabilities,Acer aspire 5920 battery,TOSHIBA Pa3356u-1brs battery news and events, if the phone has these features built in, keeping them off will save more power.

9) Use GSM – Using mobile phone in 3G or Dual Mode will drain the battery quicker than expected,Dell Inspiron 8100 battery Battery Chargers and Ch, just use GSM mode it will maximize work time.

10) Consider the type of cellular phone and technology (analog or digital) one is using. Some phones require less power.

11) Roaming requires more battery usage than using a local network.

12) Antenna efficiency, network efficiency, operating temperature, and proximity to a cellular antenna site will also affect battery consumption.

More tricks involved in increasing the mobile phone battery shelf life are
- Not talking on phone while it is being charged.
- Charging the phone to its full limit as stated in the mobile phone manual before using it.
- Increasing time between recharges.
- Keeping the batteries cool, more hotter the battery gets the more faster it will deplete.
- Removing and storing the batteries in a clean and dry place if they are not meant to be used for longtime.

Farm On Ur MSIE 6,TOSHIBA PA3383U-1BRS battery Is there a safety iss!

Laptop users can conserve battery power by using the following tips and tricks.

1) Optimize the power management features provided on the system. Managing the power used by hard drive will save significant amounts of power and will extend usage time.

2) Decrease screen brightness. On color systems, one can save quite a bit of power by changing to less resource consuming mode. black-and-white (monochrome) if possible.

3) Turn off modem if possible. Remove any Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) cards not in use (they consume power consistently).

4) Do not leave the power cell in the system with the AC adapter plugged in unless the system is being charged.

5) Avoid running large amount of applications, they increase processing and so consume more power.

Laptops are mobile devices every technology similar between laptops and mobiles will have the same effect on battery power though different in ratio. Using these tips and tricks one can conserve huge amount of power, extend working time and decrease unproductive usage. How many such tips and tricks can be implemented is solely upon the end user.

Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cad) are the most prevalent and rugged type of rechargeable batteries in the market. Ni-Cad batteries perform better in extreme temperatures and can endure approximately 750 charge and discharge cycles. However, they are prone to * memory effect * (cant remember the charge level) when they are not completely discharged after each cycle. These batteries are however being slowly phased out from the market especially from the cell phone market due to the memory effect.

Storage batteries have now become an integral part of every mobile device,Dell inspiron 8600 battery Extended lithium batter,ACER BATBL50L6 battery, may it be cellphone,SONY PCGA-BP2S battery 5, laptop,Dell Inspiron 1521 battery How to charge sealed le, iPad, iPod, iPhone, kindle or any electronic gadget which is supposed to work in wire free environment. The energy storage technologies alongside have tremendously increased too. Right from Nickle-Cadmium (Ni-Cad) to Lithium Ion (Li-on), there as been a phenomenal development in the field of Energy density, efficiency and shelf life. But yet still we have not been able to create a battery which may last for at least two decades or more without undergoing energy capacity storage decay. This is where the battery management comes into effect. The following paragraphs will give considerable insights into a little of battery knowledge and tips to maximize battery shelf life.

Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) is a more developed product from Ni-Cad batteries. It offers up to 40 percent additional capacity compared to a Ni-Cad battery of equal size. NiMH batteries are not as subject to memory effect degradation. These batteries generally have a life expectancy of approximately 400 charge/discharge cycles.

En tant que commanditaire du site Web www.BatterieUniversity.com,Dell 6Y270 battery 文章不存在java.io.FileNotFoundE, Cadex Electronics reçoit beaucoup de demandes intéressantes de la part d'utilis]]> ,Compaq Presario r3000 battery

En tant que commanditaire du site Web www.BatterieUniversity.com,Dell 6Y270 battery 文章不存在java.io.FileNotFoundE, Cadex Electronics reçoit beaucoup de demandes intéressantes de la part d’utilisateurs de batteries. L’un d’entre eux bous écrit " Bonjour, Je suis à la recherche de la réponse à une question perplexe. Un collègue de travail et moi-même avons des téléphones cellulaires identiques du même fournisseur. Déménageant dans une nouvelle maison, elle commença à se plaindre de la courte durée de fonctionnement de sa batterie. Je lui ai alors dit : Ça ne va pas la tête,SONY PCGA-BP71A battery, mais ensuite j’ai aussi remarqué que ma batterie avait un comportement différent lorsque je voyageais. Y- a-t-il une force mystérieuse qui épuise ma batterie ? "

Oui,FUJITSU Fpcbp98 battery Nanotechnology in Solar Ce, il y a un phénomène qui épuise la batterie. Un téléphone cellulaire actif est en communication permanente avec la tour et consomme des petites " rafales " d’énergie en gros une fois toutes les secondes pour vérifier les appels entrants. La puissance émise est ajustée à la puissance du signal. Si le téléphone cellulaire est proche d’un tour répétitrice,SONY PCGA-BP2SA battery, peu d’énergie est requise pour communiquer. Lorsque vous vous déplacez plus loin ou lorsque vous entrez dans un environnement avec du bruit électrique important,TOSHIBA PA3456U-1BRS battery How to choose cordles, tel qu’une grande surface commerciale, un hôpital ou une usine, plus d’énergie sera requise. Une analogie peut être faite avec les clients assis dans un restaurant; dans un établissement calme leur voix peut être basse,Dell Inspiron E1405 battery, mais au fur et à mesure qu’il se remplit, tout le monde a besoin de parler plus fort pour se faire entendre.

Le fait d’habiter en ligne directe d’une tour présente des avantages et votre batterie tiendra plus longtemps entre les charges. Fondamentalement,Dell GK479 battery How To Find the Main Battery Fu,BN-V408 battery, les tours sont les meilleures amies des batteries de téléphones cellulaires. Même l’endroit où un téléphone cellulaire est placé dans votre maison a un effet sur la durée de fonctionnement. À une réunion récente d’un gros fournisseur de téléphones cellulaires au R-U, un dirigeant nous a dit que son fils avait noté des courtes périodes de veille après avoir déménagé dans sa chambre en sous-sol. Si possible, laissez votre téléphone cellulaire dans une pièce située en haut de la maison faisant face à la tour. Lorsque vous vous déplacez en voiture, ne placez pas votre téléphone cellulaire sur le plancher. Au contraire,SONY PCGA-BP71A battery 3, essayez de l’élever au niveau d’une fenêtre mais évitez une exposition directe au soleil, puisque la chaleur pourra nuire à la batterie.

La même économie d’énergie s’applique aux systèmes TETRA et radios P25, aux téléphone sans cordon,SONY VGP-BPL2 battery 1, aux dispositifs Wi-Fi et ‘Bluetooth’. Un casque sans fil qui communique avec votre téléphone cellulaire à la ceinture fournira des durées de fonctionnement plus longues que le placement du combiné sur la table de la salle à manger lorsque vous faites la cuisine. Le casque de type ‘Bluetooth’ a besoin de travailler plus dur lorsqu’il est plus éloigné de l’utilisateur, bien que la qualité de la communication ne soit pas affectée.

Permettez-moi de clarifier que les économies d’énergie provenant de l’emplacement d’un appareil sans fil ne s’applique uniquement que s’il est sous tension. Lorsqu’il est éteint,IBM THINKPAD T42 battery How to Choose Between Bat, les charges résiduelles sont très faibles ; la batterie n’a besoin d’alimentation que pour les tâches de ménage telles que le maintien de l’horloge et l’autodécharge consomme 5 à 10 % de l’énergie disponible de la batterie par mois.

Durant les quelques années précédentes, les durées en veille et de conversation se sont bien améliorées. La batterie au lithium-ion a doublé sa densité d’énergie depuis son introduction dans le début des années 1990. De plus, des grosses économies d’énergie ont été achevées dans les circuits du récepteur et du démodulateur. La Figure 1 illustre la réduction de consommation d’énergie dans ces circuits depuis 2002. On doit garder à l’esprit que cette économie s’applique uniquement aux modes de veille et de réception. L’émission exige environ cinq fois plus d’énergie comparée à la réception et la démodulation. Les combinés modernes ont également joui de meilleures efficacités dans leurs circuits d’émission.

Figure 1 : Réduction de la consommation d’énergie. En plus de la capacité plus élevée, les fabricants de batteries et de téléphones cellulaires ont réalisé des économies notables d’énergiedans les circuits du récepteur et du démodulateur (Sieber et co.,Dell inspiron 8500 battery, 2004).